Pictures of the Heavenly King in Buddhism during the Sui and Tang Dynasties in Northern China have been popular for hundreds of years and have become dazzling art expressions in murals, sculptures and silk paintings. However, the round breastplate and goggles in the image of the Heavenly King's mighty armor have received little attention. This article contains the British silk painting "Picture of the King of the Way" that dispersed from Dunhuang, the French "Statue of Bishamonten" flag painting, the paper prints of the fourth year of Kaiyun (947) "The Statue of the Great Sage Bishamon" and the 15th cave of Yulin Grottoes The mural of the human face of the Heavenly King on the breastplate was sorted out and analyzed based on the artistic art of the Heavenly King figurines unearthed in Chang'an, Luoyang and other places in the Middle Ages. It traced the evolution of Roman breastplate art into China and determined the human face in the breastplate goggles of the Chinese Heavenly King. , falcons, lion heads and other shapes are all derived from the Western art of Greece and Rome, and are new breakthroughs in the study of Dunhuang portraits and murals.
Heavenly King paintings are a popular creation in the Tang Dynasty. In the eyes of painters, Heavenly Kings are shapes that embody the temperament of Eastern and Western heroic warriors. They wear armor to show their majesty and masculinity. Han Gan, a great painter in the prosperous Tang Dynasty, painted the "Portrait of King Bishamon" sitting sideways on the south wall of Baoying Temple Monastery in Chang'an. It's a pity that people can no longer see it after thousands of years. If we look at the details of the creation of Tianwang paintings from the lost silk paintings and paper paintings in Dunhuang, combined with the Tang Dynasty murals in Dunhuang, it will often give us a "sense of surprise" like an epiphany.
Figure 1, "Picture of the Heavenly King of the Way"
The representative works of Tenno paintings in Dunhuang include the silk painting "Picture of the King of the Way" and the other a paper drawing of "Portrait of King Bishamon". There is also a paper print "Statue of the Great Sage Bishamon" made in the fourth year of Kaiyun (947). The most eye-catching thing about these paintings is that the breastplate on the armor of the Heavenly King is often very prominent and eye-catching. The picture of the Heavenly King on the south side of the east wall of the front room of Cave 15 of Yulin Grottoes in Dunhuang is also a picture of the human face on the breastplate. The same goes for the armor of the Western Xia Samantabhadra in Cave 3 of Yulin Grottoes. However, the pattern and shape on the breastplate are often ignored as a detail. This is exactly the path and motivation we want to observe, using a small perspective to enter the historical torrent of cultural exchanges between China and the West.
Breastplate shaped like a human face in the Dunhuang King's painting
Let’s first look at the Picture of the Heavenly King of the Way (Picture 1).
The 9th century Tang Dynasty "Stein painting 45, Chi.0018" collected by the British Museum is a very famous work of art. As the main character, the Heavenly King has the majesty of a Western hero or chivalry. With the spirit of the Buddhist heavenly king and patron saint, it not only makes people feel awe-inspiring power, but also has a noble spirit that goes deep into the bone marrow. This silk painting shows King Bishamon, accompanied by the celestial army, patrolling the territory he protects. The whole picture is colorful, the lines are delicate, and the powerful lines draw a dynamic and imposing impression of the characters, reflecting the high maturity of figure painting in the Tang Dynasty and the influence of the secular aesthetics of the Tang Dynasty.
Figure 2, part of Dunhuang silk painting "Picture of the King of the Way"
The most eye-catching thing is that his breastplate is equipped with two human-faced gods (Picture 2). The protruding faces of the gods decorated on the breastplate show that Bishamonten's chest threatens all surrounding monsters and monsters to leave quickly, which also implies that The role of Bishamonten, the guardian deity of Buddhism. And this is the Western element that has clues to Greco-Roman culture.
Dr. Eiichi Matsumoto of Japan believes that this image is one of the five sons of Bishamonten. Behind him on the lower left, a Western figure wearing a strange hat and a beard on his face opened his bow and arrow, as if he was going to shoot at the Garuda (garuda) flying hastily in the upper right corner of the screen. He pointed out that there are several identical shadows of Garuda in the murals in the Turpan area depicting Bishamonten, which symbolizes the evil forces that can be driven away by the power of Bishamonten. The scene of this painting is set in the north of Mount Sumeru, which is protected by Bishamonten. Therefore, it is also called the Northern King of Tao Wen. He is the protector of Buddhism and one of the Four Heavenly Kings. The Northern King and other images often appear in several classics. In ancient Vedic mythology, King Bishamon was originally a subordinate of Emperor Shakten in mythology. Later, King Bishamont and others separated from Emperor Shakten. In early Chinese Buddhism, Be unique.
Why was King Bishamont so popular in the Tang Dynasty? According to the "Northern Bishamonten King's Dharma Protector Ritual" translated by Tang Bu Kong: In the first year of Tianbao (742), Anxi City was besieged by the Tibetan army, and King Bishamont was in the north of the city. A bright light appeared on the gate tower. There was also a "golden rat" biting the enemy's bowstring, and three to five hundred magic soldiers wearing golden armor and beating drums shook the city for three hundred miles. The earth shook and the mountains collapsed, and the Tibetan army was defeated. The government placed a statue of the Heavenly King in the northwest corner of the city tower to support it. At that time, King Bishamon's reputation was great and the incense was extremely popular. According to the "Four Heavenly Kings Sutra", the Four Heavenly Kings are the protectors of the Buddha and the protectors of the people. In particular, the belief in King Bishamon, who wears a breastplate and a battle robe, spread from Chang'an in the Tang Dynasty to Dunhuang, and then spread to Dunhuang. It is very popular in Khotan and Turpan.
Figure 3, the manuscript of "Portrait of King Bishamon" from the late 9th century collected by the National Library of France
The murals of the Dunhuang Grottoes from the late Tang Dynasty to the Five Dynasties and the Northern Song Dynasty often contain murals depicting the image of the Heavenly King. The studio painters comprehensively created similar images of the Heavenly King. The Dunhuang Painting Studio should have provided banner paintings depicting King Bishamon to donors many times. The collection of the National Library of France is The painting "Portrait of King Bishamon" from the end of the 9th century (right side of the scroll on page 5018) is the evidence that has survived to later generations (Figure 3). It is similar to the same type of painting of King Bishamon in the British Museum. The image of the human face in the round mirror is very clear, providing the first starting point for research. Hand-written historical materials.
Figure 4, the statue of King Bishamon from the fourth year of Kaiyun (947) collected by the National Library of France
If "Picture of the King of Practicing the Way" is an "elegant" silk painting, the remaining woodblock prints are "secular" paper paintings. (Picture 4) What can be seen is that the Dunhuang Sutra Cave is located in the cardboard cutout of the fourth year of Kaiyun (947). The statue of the great sage Bishamon. The two round guards on the breastplate are also human faces. They were originally from the head of the succubus Medusa. , compared with such works collected by Stein, the white paintings collected by Mr. Jao Tsung-i once said that they are similar to those in the National Library of Paris ("Dunhuang White Paintings" published by the Jao Tsung-I Academic Center of the University of Hong Kong, page 55, King of Heaven in the Clouds, 2010 edition). Paper prints, line drawings, and silk paintings of the King can all be compared one by one, from Bishamonten holding a pagoda and spear to his family members surrounding him. Except for the slight differences in details, the lion's head on the abdomen is roughly the same, but the small human face bulging in the light armor on the chest is more obvious in the white drawing.
Figure 5: The east wall of the front room of Cave 15 of Yulin Grottoes in Anxi, Dunhuang
Returning to the Dunhuang murals, there is a statue of King Bisha on the west side of the east wall of the front room of Cave 15 of Yulin Grottoes. There are also three human-faced god kings on the breastplate and waist (Figure 5).
Figure 6: Statue of the Northern King of the Tang Dynasty in Cave 25 of Dunhuang Yulin Grottoes
On the east wall of the front room of Cave 25 of the Tang Dynasty in the Yulin Grottoes is the statue of the Bisha Heavenly King. This single statue of the Heavenly King seems to have two falcon images painted on the bright mirror on its chest (Figure 6), but unfortunately it is mottled and unclear. However, the Western Xia Puxian painting in Cave 3 of Yulin Grottoes does a good job of depicting the image of the king (Figure 7), and the breastplate and chest protector convey the charm of majesty and majesty.
Figure 7, Part of the Xixia Puxian Transformation in Cave 3 of Yulin Grottoes
During the Tang Dynasty, warriors in armor became a common legendary symbol in paintings and sculptures. The existing statues of heavenly kings and powerful men in the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang often incorporate the influence of the ceremonial crowns from the Central Plains. Although there is a bright mirror on the breastplate of the clay sculpture of the heavenly king, there are no gods and beasts derived from the breastplates of warriors from other lands. Dunhuang sculptures only have common mirrors but no breastplates and monsters. This is worth pondering.
We know that Liang Zhang Sengyou in the Southern Dynasty created "Portrait of the Heavenly King Xingdao", Wu Daozi in the prosperous Tang Dynasty painted "The Heavenly King Xingdao", and during the Dazhong period of the Tang Dynasty (847-860) Fan Qiong painted "Portrait of the Northern Heavenly King Xingdao" in Shengshou Temple and marked it That is King Tawen or Bishamon. The Dunhuang picture of the Bishamon Heavenly King proves that this kind of painting has a widespread role as a protective god. It was popular from the Middle Tang Dynasty to the Song Dynasty. There are more than 80 existing illustrations, which shows the prosperity of the belief in the Heavenly King at that time.
Breastplate art introduced to Central Asia and Western Regions from Greece and Rome
From the early Roman Republic, the Roman army based on citizen militias achieved a series of victories. After the establishment of the Roman legions, weapons and armor were changed and improved many times during the empire. Each soldier wore a bronze helmet and breastplate, but Their basic attire remained unchanged for a long time. Around the 3rd century BC, the Roman army paid more attention to personal defense. Poor people who could not afford armor would tie a plate to their chests. This may be the origin of the widespread installation of breastplates later. A mixed combat unit composed of infantry and cavalry is called a legion. The legion has mail armor (Iorica hamata), scale armor (Iorica squamata), plate armor (Iorica segmentata), and wears soft armor under the armor. A padded cuirass (thorumachus) protected the chest, and soldiers were often embellished with legionary insignia and numbers. This medallion decoration was typical of Roman centurions.
The Roman noble breastplate was developed from the armor of ancient Greece. In the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, the new Roman legionnaires' uniforms changed slightly. Chain armor was lighter than plate armor, and leather armor was lighter. However, Rome inherited the popularity of Greek armor, and the breastplates had human faces, animal faces, and mythical beasts. , the breastplates often have the heads of giants or monsters, such as Medusa, Gorgon, Pala, etc., which not only intimidate the enemy but also scare the opponent's horses.
In recent years, China has held a series of exhibitions of Greek and Roman cultural relics, using sculptures to display breastplates of ancient Western military equipment. Let’s take a look at some of the most typical cultural relics.
Figure 8, early Roman centurion sculpture collected in the Roman Museum
Centurions in the early Roman Empire were the core force of the legion leadership. Each legion was equipped with 60 centurions. They wore a whole leather breastplate decorated with multiple round metal badges (some say they were medals) (Figure 8 ). These medals were mounted on high-quality leather armor and embossed with apotropaic patterns, and all metal medals depicted military rewards for their bravery. Senior generals are even more decorated with gorgeous breastplates. In the middle of the chest and breasts is a frontal image of the Gorgon (one of the Medusas) with snake hair. Under the chest is a rider on a horse with a monster Griffin or other gods and monsters.
Figure 9, Statue of Emperor Trajan from the 1st century AD, Archaeological Museum of Naples
Emperor Trajan, sculpted in the late first century AD, is a military commander wearing a breastplate (Fig. 9). In addition to Medusa, the upper breastplate of the short-coat military uniform also has a military statue of the goddess of war Athena. The lower part of the breastplate has various decorations such as dancing girls, wolf heads, sheep heads, etc. In addition to its protective function, this kind of armor for upper-class people also It is basically a symbol of identity and status, as well as a ceremonial significance for reviewing soldiers' government affairs.
Figure 10: Statue of Horconius Rufus excavated from Pompeii, collected by the Naples Museum, AD 2-14
The statue of Horconius Rufus unearthed in Pompeii (Figure 10) is a statue from the Augustus era in the first century AD. The most outstanding figure in Pompeii wore a military uniform to indicate that he was the supreme commander. Protruding from the middle of the armor is the image of Medusa. Legend has it that the gaze of this monster can turn opponents to stone. In addition, it is decorated with two snakes, shoulder pads with lightning, fantasy animals mixed with Griffin variants, and alternating bearded men and The central theme of a woman's head and breastplate is a symbol of power.
Figure 11: Armored statue of Julius Claudius from the first half of the 1st century AD in the Archaeological Museum of Naples
The armored statue of Julius Claudius from the first half of the first century AD (Figure 11) shows the young prince wearing military armor, but his coat is almost entirely covered by a breastplate. The center of the ornately decorated breastplate is A horse is being attacked by a griffin, a monster from Greek mythology. The rider's chest is depicted with the Gorgon, and the lower part of the breastplate is decorated with two rows of scales and tassels.
Putting mythological or religious animal or human faces on the breastplate in order to obtain divine help. This method of protection appeared as early as the ancient Greek period and was very common in Rome BC. Starting from the third century AD, most of the emperors of the Roman Empire rose from the army. Breastplates and armors preferred patterns that praised the might of heroes. They used animal faces or divine faces to decorate armors in the hope of victory in wars. They just stepped across the Arc de Triomphe. Show off your majestic appearance. It can be said that the statues of monarchs and upper-class figures wearing armor and military uniforms are original creations during the Roman Empire. The use of this breastplate image can not only highlight the military background of the object, but also highlight the symbolic significance of the conqueror. Roman art craftsmen used breastplate decoration to express the image of the emperor in the public mind, proving that these figures were symbols of the empire's rationality, lawfulness and order. The various patterns decorated on the breastplate symbolized the heroism of the army and the confidence to win.
Let’s look at two of the most famous statues scattered throughout Rome.
First, Athena, the goddess of wisdom, is wearing armor and holding a shield. Not only is she wearing an Attic helmet, but she is also covered in armor carved with various gods and figures, because Athena is the goddess of Athens, Argos, Megara, The patron saint of cities such as Sparta, especially the Parthenon, the largest temple in Athens, built to celebrate Athens' victory over the Persian invaders. Athena became the representative of the patron saint of that era, and her statues were erected in various cities in Rome. They were made slightly larger than life and lifelike.
Figure 12, Statue of Athena, Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy
The image characteristics of Athena are: wearing a helmet crown when fighting, her upper body is covered with snake armor, her right hand holds a spear or a small statue of the goddess of victory, and her left hand holds the golden tassel Aigis (Athena's shield). In particular, the jersey worn by Athena is decorated with various badges and symbols (Figure 12). The leather armor not only has the banshee Medusa, but also vultures, sea eagles, owls, etc. These are all to help people defeat the Persians and win The victorious monster. Athena, as the goddess of war who resisted invasion, was widely used in military breastplates.
Figure 13, Augustus statue in the first door; about 20 BC; white marble; height: 2.06 meters; Vatican Museums
Second, Augustus has always been an idol worshiped by the Romans. Therefore, people today can still see many exquisite statues and busts of Augustus. What the sculptor created was an Augustus wearing armor (Figure 13). He looked proud and solemn. The artists highlighted that when he was wearing military uniform, the human heads and lion heads embossed on the breastplate were all victors. The lower part of the armor he wore was decorated with feathers, ivy, grape leaves, Dionysus, wavy patterns, etc. It not only shows his physical status as a military strategist, but also highlights his political identity and symbolic symbols.
Figure 14, Roman Era Statue of Caligula National Archaeological Museum of Naples
In addition, the statue of Caligula (Figure 14) collected by the National Archaeological Museum in Naples has a statue of a gorgon wearing armor.
Figure 15, Marcus Aurelius breastplate statue in the Roman Empire, 177 AD
There is also a statue of Mark Aurelius erected in Cyrene (now Libya) in 130-140 AD (Figure 15). Only the torso of the statue of the emperor dressed as a general remains, but Athena in the center is carved with two victors on the left and right. The goddess, below is a she-wolf and twins. This is a fusion of unique North African patterns, indicating that similar breastplate statues have spread widely. Hadrian's breastplate is also decorated with various labels (Figure 16). To sum up the above, firstly, if you conquer and kill an opponent, you will inlay them on your armor to commend your achievements; secondly, if you decorate your breastplate with these, they will intimidate the enemy; thirdly, it is believed that they can avoid disasters.
Figure 16, General Hadrian’s torso, unearthed in Cyrene, Libya, AD 130-140
The embodiment of Central Asia’s “wearing prey as victory trophies to boost morale” is obviously a continuation of the custom of Greek and Roman mythology. After fighting a lion, Herakles peeled off its skin and put it on himself. The lion's head is used as a helmet, both to show off conquests and to deter the enemy. It is this habit that gradually led to the emergence of symbols in Central Asian armor decorations. For example, the mural unearthed from the ancient city of Kent in Pianzhi, Central Asia, shows the god of wind wearing round goggles. There are Sogdian warriors wearing Mingguang armor (Figure 17), and they frequently appeared in tombs before the prosperous Tang Dynasty in Chang'an.
Figure 17, Kataji Kent warrior mural in the Hermitage Sogdiana Hall of the Hermitage
The most eye-catching thing is that among the colorful pottery figurines of Kizil warriors in Kuqa, Xinjiang, which were stolen by the Russian expedition, there is a pair of warriors with high noses and deep eyes wearing leather military uniforms with breastplates, with the faces of gods and men carved on the breastplates. (Figure 18), it is very eye-catching and is now on display in the Ermita Museum. The armor worn by the Dragon King unearthed from Yanqi Shuerchuk also has Roman gods and other figures engraved on it. This is a true portrayal of the spread of Roman breastplates to the Western Regions, and it is also Roman culture was a reflection of the Mediterranean region beyond.
Figure 18, Kuqa Bezeklik Tang Dynasty Figurine Collection of the Russian Hermitage
The artistic shapes of figures and animals on the breastplate seem to have timeless artistic charm as classics. The artistic source derived from the creation of Greek and Roman mythology spread indirectly to East Asia with Alexander's expedition to Asia, and merged with the warrior shapes of Buddhist kings and protectors. , spanning time and space, has produced trend-setting artistic charm, interpreting the heroic spirit and spirit of samurai who dared to draw their swords. Viewers can resonate with it, learn from it, and create iconic symbols.
Bezekrit pottery figurines from Turpan, Russia
It is worth analyzing that some people believe that the statues of King Bishamon painted in the Mogao Grottoes and Yulin Grottoes in Dunhuang during the Tubo period are basically images of Tubo armored warriors. Tubo armor was very famous in the seventh and eighth centuries, that is, the Tang Dynasty. It is said that Tubo armor makers, bow and arrow makers, saddle makers, etc. were priority handicrafts for development. Because Tubo continued to expand to all directions, weapons and equipment must conform to its development direction, so Military equipment manufacturing technology was once quite advanced.
Historical records record that Tubo chain armor enjoys a high reputation. The "Tubo" article in Volume 190 of "Tongdian" "Border Defense Code" records that "both men and horses are wearing chain mail. The production is very refined. It is all over the body, except for the open The two eyes cannot be hurt by a powerful bow or a sharp blade...the bow and arrow are weak but the armor is strong." Laufer was the first to point out that Tubo's chain armor should have come from Persia, and Tubo had not yet achieved local manufacturing of armor. Mineral metals in Iran were already very developed in the Sasanian Dynasty. The iron used in sword casting was a hard and sharp steel.
Dai Miwei compared the Tubo armor in Dunhuang murals with the relief chain mail of Khosrow II (reigned 590-628) of Sasanian Persia, confirming that the Tubo armor originated from Persia, but it was introduced by the Tubo in the 6th and 7th centuries. I can imitate it myself. Tubo later paid tribute to the Tang Dynasty, such as Jinjia, Jinfulu and other metallurgical products with strange shapes, but these were gifts. Tubo also gave gold and silver gifts to Nanzhao. As for the shape of the Jinjia, it is unknown. . However, from the 5th century to the 9th century, armor, chain mail, etc. in Eurasia could not be bought and sold casually. They were not commercial items and needed to flow into the hands of the army through other channels.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York held the "Warriors of the Himalayas" exhibition in 2006, which focused on Tibetan ancient weapons collections. The Islamic history book "The Book of Treasures and Curiosities" after the 11th century stated that in the 6th century, Sassanid Boskus Sr. received tribute from Tibet. In fact, Tubo was still in the process of forming in the 6th century and had not yet formed an army to form a unified political power. This statement is extremely unreliable. But it reflects that Tubo's armor and craftsmen's metal smelting technology have been greatly improved.
As for the legend that the Tubo king purchased 100,000 armors from Sri Lanka in South Asia and was introduced to eastern Tibet via India, this is even more unreliable. Therefore, it may be a misjudgment or misinformation to say that the round breastplate of the Heavenly King in Dunhuang's "Picture of the Practicing Heavenly King" comes from Tibetan armor, and that the Heavenly King is an image of a Tubo warrior.
From the introduction of the Central Plains to the unearthed breastplate art of the Heavenly King in Chang'an of the Tang Dynasty
To understand the appearance of Chinese breastplate art on Buddhist king figures or tomb figurines, let’s first look at the history of breastplates.
The breastplate that appeared at the end of the Han and Jin Dynasties in ancient China was a type of armor that was still widely used in the Northern and Southern Dynasties until the Tang Dynasty. The main feature of this kind of armor is that there are two polished oval protective metal pieces called breast shields on the chest of the armor. The breast mirror emits a dazzling and bright "bright light" armor under the reflection of sunlight. According to the unearthed cultural relics, Mingguang armor has precious and simple styles. The precious body is covered with scales, and the simple ones are similar to Liangdang armor. What is puzzling is when did the Mingguang Armor appear? Is it related to the Roman Legion? Some young scholars across space have proposed that the round breastplates of ancient Greek breastplates and the round breastplates with ancient Roman heads are the origin of the Mingguang armor. They also illustrated examples to illustrate that the Mingguang armor in Han Dynasty should be derived from the ancient Greek and Roman armor system. This new perspective is undoubtedly worthy of attention and provides space to promote continued inquiry in the academic community.
Tracing back to the early days of Cao Zhi's "The Table of Armors Given by the First Emperor", it is described: "The first emperor gave his ministers armor, one collar each for black light and bright light, one collar for Liangdang armor, one collar for ring lock armor, and one collar for horse armor. In this world, there will be peace and war. , Begging for information to pay for the armor, Cao Cao will take care of himself." It can be seen from this that the breast mirror-style Mingguang armor is rare and precious, and is used by senior generals. This kind of armor is not commonly equipped in the army.
After the Northern Wei Dynasty, the use of Mingguang armor in the army became more and more the choice of generals. The unearthed pottery figurines and remaining stone carvings prove the popular trend at that time. However, the "Yuanhu" that appeared in the Northern Dynasties was not a brightly polished Mingguang armor. Due to manufacturing cost constraints, it would not be widely used. It is worth mentioning that the divine general protector of the Mingguang Armor in the Northern Dynasties was obviously influenced by Buddhism. The falcon in the round goggles may be related to the Indian falcon-headed god, which obscures the image of the real military armor. Therefore, the exquisite and beautiful Mingguang Armor became the symbol of the temple. Fetishes absorbed foreign plastic arts and have continued into later generations.
Figure 19: The tomb figurines of Emperor Han of the Northern Qi Dynasty
Let’s look at the cultural relics now. The Jinyang Ancient City Museum in Taiyuan, Shanxi displays armor pottery figurines unearthed from the tomb of Han Zunian in the Northern Qi Dynasty. The breastplates and goggles depict human faces and gods (Figure 19). This is a pottery figurine with a breastplate in a Northern Dynasty tomb, which is derived from Western styles.
During the Sui Dynasty, there were two divine kings in the Dazhusheng Cave of Lingquan Temple Grottoes in Anyang, namely God King Kapila and King Narayan. Among them, King Kapila had a strong body, with an upper body that looked like armor and a lower body with a robe, and the depiction was vivid. , especially the human-faced giant god carved on the breastplate of the God King (Figure 20A and B). Some doctors said that this is a Central Asian face. I don’t know what the basis for this guess is.
Figure 20A, Anyang Lingquan Temple Dazhusheng Cave Gate, the ninth year of Emperor Kaihuang’s reign in the Sui Dynasty
Figure 20B, Part of the Heavenly King of Lingquan Temple in Anyang
According to the "Liu Dian of the Tang Dynasty", there were thirteen types of armor in the Tang Dynasty. Mingguang armor was the most common. The round goggles as a breastplate became a must-have armor highlight in statues of heavenly kings, warrior pottery figurines, and temple murals. At the same time, the round breastplate protector Various sculptures such as animal heads and tiger swallows also appeared. This change made the bright mirror lose its reflective effect. However, the highly sculptural human face or falcon on the breastplate clearly intersects with the Greek and Roman breastplate art.
Figure 21, collected by Nara Museum
Figure 22, collected by Nara Museum
Since the Tang Dynasty, a large number of Japanese envoys and learned monks sent to the Tang Dynasty brought a large number of Buddhist scriptures, Buddhist utensils, and Buddhist paintings into Japan. For example, there is a statue of Douba Bishamon from the Tang Dynasty in China in the Toji Temple in Kyoto, Japan. This wooden sculpture The armor of the statue of the Heavenly King is carefully carved and lifelike in texture. The two human faces on the left and right on the breastplate are giant gods (Figure 21, Figure 22).
Among the eight layers of treasure letters in the front room of the underground palace of Famen Temple, the second layer of gilt treasure letters of the Four Heavenly Kings shows the image of the great sage Bishamon of the North (Fig. 23), which is a figure of a warrior wearing full armor, with a human face shield carved on the breastplate. This shows that after the prosperous Tang Dynasty, the popularity of breastplates and goggles on images of kings was very common.
Figure 23, Famen Temple’s treasure letter from the Northern Great Sage Bishamonten, dated the 14th year of Xiantong in the Tang Dynasty (873)
A noteworthy clue is that Yang Huizhi, the most famous sculptor during the Kaiyuan period, was famous for his sculptures in Chang'an temples, and he also sculpted statues of the Heavenly King. "There is a statue of the Heavenly King Bishamon in Huiju Temple, which is life-like in shape and was created by Yang Huizhi in the Tang Dynasty." "Wu Jun Zhi" also records that "the Buddha statue in the main hall of Huiju Temple in Kunshan and the statue of Bishamon in the west side small hall, as well as more than ten people standing on the left and right, are all dignified and lively, and the sculptures are exquisite. It is said that they were made by Yang Huizhi of the Tang Dynasty." Volume 3 of "Records of Famous Paintings of the Past Dynasties" states that he sculpted Buddha statues, ghosts and gods, Vimalakirti, etc. in many temples in Chang'an. It is very likely that he accepted foreign sculpture techniques and models. But I don’t know whether the model he created was the military armor of the Tang Dynasty or the armor of a divine general.
Figure 24, Terracotta Warriors of the Heavenly King unearthed from Yuedeng Pavilion in the eastern suburbs of Xi'an
Surprisingly, in 2021, at the archaeological site of Yuedengge Metro Line 8 in the eastern suburbs of Xi'an, two hook-beaked eagle heads protruded from the round goggles on the breastplate of the Tang Sancai Heavenly King figurine (Figure 24), which is fierce and ferocious. This style is an artistic style not seen since Kaiyuan Tianbao. It was probably popular from the Yonghui period of Emperor Gaozong to the Tianbao period of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty. This allowed the author to once again confirm that it came from the spread of Greco-Roman cuirass art. Because the soul symbol of the Roman legion was the eagle flag (signum legionis), the eagle was used as a symbol to decorate the legion's battalions and teams. Each legion had a silver eagle in the early days, and later it was changed to a gold eagle and served as the basic The number of the unit. In 102 BC, the Roman Republic legally designated the eagle emblem as its official symbol, known as the "SPQR Eagle". The Romans hoped that this Jupiter's eagle would guide them to victory one after another on the battlefield. . Therefore, the Roman legionary armor was proudly decorated with an eagle. Of course, I also have another speculation. The falcon head is the Egyptian god of sky, war and hunting. The falcon head combines Roman and Egyptian decorative patterns and cultural factors, and was once used on the statue of King Horus in Rome.
Figure 25, Terracotta Warriors of the Heavenly Kings from Anpu Tomb in Luoyang, dating from the third year of Jinglong Period (709)
Evidence of this is found in the three-color Heavenly King figurine from the Anpu Tomb in Longmen, Luoyang. People did not study it carefully after it was discovered in 1981. The warrior-shaped Heavenly King figurine wears an eagle-decorated helmet, and there are also raised sharp-beaked eagle heads on the left and right sides of the front breastplate ( Figure 25), some people think that the round breast guards on the left and right sides are decorated with raised animal heads. Anpu was a Sogdian and the chief of Liuhu Prefecture. His ancestor was the chief of Anguo. He was buried with Eastern Roman gold coins in his tomb. He was an official who had close ties with foreign cultures, so the three-color figurines of the Heavenly Kings appeared in his tomb. It is no surprise that the Western cultural factors are the same as the three-color Tianwang Terracotta Warriors of the Tang Dynasty in Xi'an.
There are many similar breastplate shapes of the King of Heaven in various parts of the country, so I won’t give an example here one by one.
However, after entering the 7th century, Turkic light cavalry, which was good at carrying out rapid raids, gradually became the mainstream. The role of the expensive and inflexible cuirassiers gradually weakened, and even some areas no longer received attention. After the prosperous Tang Dynasty, the officers and soldiers who wore armor, body armor and Mingguang armor most of the time gradually evolved into a force of the nature of the Imperial Guard. Cuirassiers were only occasionally worn for decoration during military parades on formal celebration occasions. At that time, the army believed that the flashy breastplates were too eye-catching and obstructive on the battlefield, so most honor guards no longer wore complicated and gorgeous breastplates to show off, but in In art, it continues to be transformed into the king of heaven and the powerful man, who play an intimidating role in inducing fear in the enemy.
The appearance of the tomb figurines of the Heavenly Kings in the Tang Dynasty as tough warriors is not only due to the ancients' fear of ghosts and ghosts in the underworld, but also the fear of all kinds of ghosts and evil spirits to cause trouble to the deceased or harm the relatives of the deceased. If we only look at the Dunhuang Heavenly Kings Judging from the shape, it more expresses their fearless heroic spirit, which is related to the advocating of heroes, gods and men in Greece and Rome.
Figure 26: Statue of the Heavenly King unearthed from the Kaiyuan Temple site in the Northern Song Dynasty in Zhengzhou
After the Tang Dynasty, the pattern on the round breastplate of the Heavenly King did not completely weaken or disappear. Although there were generational differences, it still existed as a classic in the sculptures of the Heavenly King in temples and was still clearly reappeared from time to time. It is exhibited in the Zhengzhou Museum In Chen's pair of stone statues of Heavenly Kings in Kaiyuan Temple of the Northern Song Dynasty, the breastplates of the two Heavenly Kings still retain the images of Roman gods and men (see Figures 26 and 27). The left and right round guards are illustrious, indicating that the temples were still vividly erected in the Northern Song Dynasty. This image. As late as the Southern Song Dynasty, stonemasons (in Luzhou, Sichuan) were still inheriting the artistic styles of their predecessors and absorbing nutrients from foreign cultures to create Buddhist heavenly kings and protector heroes, although this stereotype may be unconscious.
Figure 27: Statue of the Heavenly King unearthed from the Kaiyuan Temple site in the Northern Song Dynasty in Zhengzhou
Dunhuang is a blessed land of art that intersects vertically and horizontally. In the past, it was generally said that Dunhuang art absorbed the culture of the four major civilizations of Europe and Asia. In fact, it did not delve into the spread of aesthetics in Eastern and Western art. Mr. Yang Hong once compared the armor systems of the ancient East and the West. , pointed out that the exquisite breastplate was equipped for the upper-class figures in Rome at that time. In addition to its protective function, it also had ceremonial significance and was also a symbol of identity and status. Although there are differences between Eastern and Western armor, with their respective regional characteristics and craftsmanship traditions completely different, the artistic expression on the Roman breastplate was absorbed by China and integrated into the prominent feature of the image of the King of Heaven. This detail is constantly being revealed with medieval archaeological relics. It is very inspiring for us to understand the creative path of creating heroic and mighty images in the Dunhuang Heavenly King paintings. We use small insights to interpret the ancient thoughts and images from a micro perspective. This can be seen from the Dunhuang Heavenly Kings paintings of the Tang Dynasty to the breastplates of the Heavenly Kings unearthed in Xi'an and Luoyang and the Anyang stone carvings. The symbols originating from the Roman Legion all prove that the charm and tension of foreign cultural details are condensed on the breastplate. This is not a manifestation of imaginary worlds and time travel, but once again proves that the fulcrum of cultural exchanges is diverse.
(This article is the result of the National Social Science Foundation's unpopular project "Research on the Civilization Attributes of Foreign Images in Dunhuang Murals" (20VJXT014). The author Ge Chengyong is a distinguished professor at the Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities of Shaanxi Normal University and a part-time researcher at the Silk Road Center of the Dunhuang Institute. The original article was published in " "Journal of the Palace Museum" Issue 1, 2025, published by The Paper with the authorization of the author (notes not included).
